Wildlife Management

Because wildlife in the United States is publicly owned, management actions and policies depend on public acceptance. This article uses a normative approach to describe and evaluate what the public believes are acceptable management actions toward three different wildlife species involved in human‐wildlife interactions. The results illustrate the extent to which normative beliefs about wildlife management actions are influenced by situational specifics and wildlife value orientations. Across different species and situations, individuals with protectionist wildlife values were less willing than those with pro‐use wildlife values to accept destroying an animal. The results point to circumstances that are likely to generate intense conflict over particular management policies and allow more confident generalization about how publics will respond to different management actions. Additional research is needed to identify the situational specifics and human values that best explain and predict normative beliefs...

A common challenge in species conservation and management is how to incorporate species movements into management objectives. There often is a lack of knowledge of where, when and why species move. The field of movement ecology has grown rapidly in the last decade and is now providing the knowledge needed to incorporate movements of species into management planning. This knowledge can also be used to develop management strategies that are flexible in time and space and may improve the effectiveness of management actions. Therefore, wildlife management and conservation may benefit by strengthening the link with movement ecology. We present a framework that illustrates how animal movement can be used to enhance conservation planning and identify management actions that are complementary to existing strategies. The framework contains five steps that identify (1) the movement attributes of a species, (2) their impacts on ecosystems, (3) how this knowledge can be used to guide the scale and type of management, (4) the implementation, and (5) the evaluation of management actions. We discuss these five steps in detail, highlighting why the step is important and how the information can be obtained. We illustrate the framework through a case study of managing a highly mobile species, the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), a harvested species of conservation concern. We believe that the movement-management framework provides an important, and timely, link between movement ecology and wildlife management and conservation, and highlights the potential for complementary, dynamic solutions for managing wildlife.

This article explores the convergence of poverty reduction and con- servation in Tanzania, focusing on the work of transnational conservation organisations. It outlines the ways in which this convergence has been con- ceptualised in the context of large-scale landscape conservation, most notably community-based Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs). We argue that the overriding priorities of large landscape conservation in Tanzania are revalu- ing landscapes in ways that make them desirable and available to private in- vestors, while keeping key wildlife migration corridors free of human habitation. We describe the ways in which these twin priorities actually exacerbate poverty and undermine democracy at the community level through a case study of communities living between Tarangire and Lake Manyara Na- tional Parks in Tanzania's northern tourist circuit. We then discuss how and why these realities are rendered invisible in the discourses and images of transnational conservation. We conclude by proposing alternative approaches that we believe would contribute to improved conservation governance and community prosperity.

This article tests theory suggesting cognitions at the same level of specificity have stronger associations than those at different levels. Using data from a survey of Anchorage, AK, residents (n = 971, response rate = 59%), we explored relationships between general wildlife value orientations and (1) the general acceptability of hunting urban wildlife populations, and (2) specific wildlife management actions (e.g., the acceptability of destroying a bear or moose after specific conflict situations). Consistent with previous research, patterns of basic wildlife beliefs aligned along two distinct value orientations (protection–use and wildlife appreciation) that differentially predicted management action acceptability. As hypothesized, general wildlife value orientations had more influence on the acceptability of hunting to reduce wildlife populations than destroying an animal involved in specific conflict situations. Findings suggested ways to improve measurement, ways to develop broader models that include values-related variables, and the importance of values-level information when addressing urban wildlife conflicts.

The central aim of conservation biology is to understand and mitigate the effects of human activities on biodiversity. To successfully achieve this objective, researchers must take an interdisciplinary approach that fully considers the effects, both direct and indirect, of anthropogenic disturbances on wildlife physiology and health. A recent surge in research has revealed that host-associated microbiota—the archaeal, bacterial, fungal and viral communities residing on and inside organisms—profoundly influence animal health, and that these microbial communities can be drastically altered by anthropogenic activities. Therefore, conservation practitioners should consider the disruption of host-associated microbial diversity as a serious threat to wildlife populations. Despite the tremendous potential for microbiome research to improve conservation outcomes, few efforts have been made to truly integrate these fields. In this review, we call for the microbial renaissance of conservation biology, where biodiversity of host-associated microbiota is recognized as an essential component of wildlife management practices. Using evidence from the existing literature, we will examine the known effects of anthropogenic activities on the diversity of host-associated microbial communities and integrate approaches for maintaining microbial diversity to successfully achieve conservation objectives.

Successful monitoring underpins effective wildlife management insofar as monitoring serves to track the response of wildlife resources to management and to identify whether management should be continued or changed. Here we provide both general guidelines and specific examples for the design and implementation of effective monitoring programs for adaptive wildlife management based, in part, on lessons we have learned in the Galapagos Islands, where development of a comprehensive monitoring program for its wildlife is underway. To be effective, wildlife monitoring programs should (1) be framed by well-articulated objectives that are closely linked to management goals; (2) measure a subset of informative indicators with sampling methods that permit unbiased and statistically powerful results while minimizing costs and logistical problems; (3) ensure program continuity despite the vagaries of change in personnel, technology, and program objectives; and (4) quickly make accessible appropriately analyzed information to a wide audience, particularly policymakers. Only through such an integrated process can the adaptive loop' in wildlife management be closed and management practices and policies evolve in a manner ultimately beneficial to wildlife, both in Galapagos and elsewhere.

Abstract Fish and wildlife management in North America has been experiencing a fundamental philosophical shift among professional managers and policy makers about who are the beneficiaries of management. This has been reflected in broadening notions of who should be considered in decision making; not just traditional clients who pay for and receive services of managers, but all stakeholders in fish and wildlife management. The term “stakeholder”; has emerged to represent any citizen potentially affected by or having a vested interest (a stake) in an issue, program, action or decision leading to an action. The stakeholder approach in management decision making recognizes a larger set of beneficiaries of management (including, in concept, future generations) than the traditional concepts of constituencies and clients, or customers, a term currently popular among fish and wildlife agencies. The stakeholder approach requires: (1) identification of important stakeholders, (2) flexibility in selection of method...

Introduction: A New Wildlife Management Paradigm Part I Urban Landscapes Chapter One Wildlife Management: Past and Present Key Concepts A Brief History of Wildlife Management in North America Rise of the American Conservation Movement Changing Wildlife Values A New Kind of Wildlife Categorizing Wildlife The Unique Ecology and Behavior of Urban Wildlife Special Challenges for Wildlife Management within Urban Settings Urban Ecosystems Urban Habitats Sociopolitical Factors Special Management Considerations An Urban Species of Special Interest: The Raccoon (Procyon lotor) Pet Raccoons Raccoon Economics Raccoons as Disease Vectors The Urban Raccoon Diet Denning Population Densities Species Profile: Killdeer (Charadrius vociferus) Chapter Activities Literature Cited Chapter Two The Changing Landscape of Wildlife Management Key Concepts Demographic Factors That Set the Stage for Urban Wildlife Management The Separation of People and Nature The Need for Wildlife Management in Urban Areas The Need for Public Education Programs About Urban Wildlife Outcomes of Human-Wildlife Encounters Urbanites Need to Reconnect With the Natural World Urban Wildlife Species Are Increasing, Sometimes to Nuisance Levels Some Insights into the Magnitude of Urban Wildlife Problems Urban Species of Most Concern: National Analysis to Urban Species of Most Concern: Regional Analysis to Economic Impact of Damage to Resources by Urban Wildlife: National Overview Economic Impact of Damage to Resources by Urban Wildlife: Regional Overview Urban Habitats as a Dominant Focus of Wildlife Professionals The Infrastructure for Urban Wildlife Management Is Missing Case Study : Neighborhood Moose Killed by Kindness Species Profile: Bobcat (Lynx rufus) Chapter Activities Literature Cited Part II Urban Ecosystems Chapter Three Ecological Principles in the Urban Context Key Concepts Ecological Principles Diversity Interrelationships Cycles Energy Ecosystem Structure Abiotic Structure Biotic Structure Food Chains and Webs Symbiotic Relationships Biotic Communities Urban Flora Urban Fauna Ecosystem Function Biogeochemical Cycles Energy Thermodynamics and Conservation of Matter Ecological Succession Ecosystem Services Species Profile: Chimney Swift (Chaetura pelagica) Chapter Activities Literature Cited Chapter Four Urban Soils Key Concepts Introduction Soil Formation Soil Structure Soil Horizons Soil Functions Soil Biota and Their Functions Impacts of Urbanization on Soil Structure and Function Structure Modification: Compaction and Surface Crusting Modified Soil Reaction Anthropogenic Materials Increased Soil Temperatures Taking Better Care of Urban Soil Urban Wildlife Management Implications Species Profile: Moles (Talpidae spp ) Chapter Activities Literature Cited Chapter Five Urban Waters Key Concepts Introduction The Flow of Water through an Urban Community Sources Uses Discharge Recycle The Water Cycle-Nature's Filter The Transpiration Loop The Groundwater Loop The Evaporation Loop Caring For the Water Cycle Riparian Corridors: Streams and Rivers Abiotic Effects of Urbanization on Riparian Ecology Pollutants Stream Channelization Biotic Effects of Urbanization on Stream Ecology The Aquatic Food Chain Fish as Indicator Species Restoration of Riparian Habitats Urban Wetlands Water Gardens Constructed Wetlands Urban (Community) Fisheries Programs Summary Species Profile: American Beaver (Castor canadensis) Chapter Activities Literature Cited Chapter Six Principles of Population Dynamics Key Concepts Introduction Survival Adaptations Density Factors Affecting Population Densities How Populations Grow Population Growth Rate Patterns Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on Population Dynamics Effects of Supplemental Feeding on Population Dynamics Effects of Animal Damage Control Activities on Population Dynamics Effects of Environmental Pollutants on Wildlife Population Dynamics Species Profile: Tree Squirrels (Sciurus spp ) Chapter Activity Literature Cited PART III URBAN HABITATS AND HAZARDS Chapter Seven Urban Green Spaces Key Concepts Introduction Green Spaces Remnant Habitat Patches Successional Habitat Patches Managed Habitat Patches Cemeteries Golf Courses Nature Centers Rural versus Urban Wildlife Populations Species Profile: Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) Acknowledgment Chapter Activities Literature Cited Chapter Eight Urban Gray Spaces Key Concepts Introduction Buildings, Windows, and Towers Buildings Windows Communication Towers Wind Towers Roads and Highways Animal Mortality Overpasses, Underpasses, and Escape Routes Structural Design Considerations Bridges, Birds, and Bats Landfills, Dumpsters, and Garbage Cans Organic Waste Accumulations: A Concept Unique to Urban Ecosystems Factors That Promote the Presence of Wildlife at Landfills Standards Used in Landfill Siting Types of Habitats Found in and around Landfills Human-Wildlife Conflicts at Landfills Wildlife Management at Landfills Airports Standards for Airport Siting and Zoning Types of Habitats Found in and around Airports Wildlife Species Attracted to Airport Habitats Human-Wildlife Interactions at Airports Wildlife Management Priorities at Airports Species Profile: Mexican Free-Tailed Bat (Tadarida brasiliensis) Chapter Activities Literature Cited PART IV SOCIOPOLITICAL ISSUES Chapter Nine Human Dimensions in Urban Wildlife Management Key Concepts Introduction The "People Factor" Conducting Human Dimensions Research Surveying Wildlife Recreationists The Role of Human Dimensions in Urban Wildlife Management Public Participation in Wildlife-Associated Recreation Wildlife Values Quality of Life Issues Human-Wildlife Conflict Issues HD Methods for Resolving Human-Wildlife Conflicts Case Study : Ducks and Traffic An Urban Species of Special Concern: Urban Coyotes (Canis latrans) What Is an Urban Coyote? Range Expansion Coping with Coyotes-Management Plans Coyote Economics Coyote Control Considerations Species Profile: American Crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) Chapter Activities Literature Cited Chapter Ten Working with Urban Stakeholders Key Concepts Inviting Everyone to the Table The Policy Life Cycle What (and Who) Is a Stakeholder? The Changing Face of Wildlife Stakeholders A Guide to Major Stakeholders Government (Public Sector) Federal Tribal Governments State and Territorial Governments Local Governments Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) Academic Institutions The Public Case Study : Stakeholders Disagree on Best Approach for Managing Fallow Deer Species Profile: Black Bear (Ursus americanus) Chapter Activities Literature Cited Chapter Eleven Legal Aspects of Urban Wildlife Management Key Concepts Wildlife Law Federal Laws The Lacey Act of The Migratory Bird Treaty Act of The Animal Damage Control Act of The Endangered Species Act of State Laws County and Municipal Laws Local Ordinances Who Is in Charge Here? Protecting the Health and Safety of All Case Study : Operation Remove Excrement Species Profile: Cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis) Chapter Activities Literature Cited PART V SPECIAL MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS Chapter Twelve The Ecology and Management Considerations of Selected Species Key Concepts Introduction Endangered Species Houston Toad (Bufo houstonensis) San Joaquin Kit Fox (Vulpes macrotis mutica) Florida Key Deer (Odocoileu virginianus clavium) Introduced Species House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) Nutria (Myocastor coypus) Feral Species Pigeons (Columba livia) Free-Ranging Domestic Cats (Felis catus) Free-Ranging Hogs (Sus scrofa) Chapter Activities Literature Cited Chapter Thirteen Zoonoses and Management Considerations Key Concepts What Are Zoonoses? Parasitic Diseases Protozoa Helminths Trematodes (Flukes) Cestodes (Tapeworms) Nematodes (Roundworms) Mycotic Diseases Aspergillosis Histoplasmosis Bacterial Diseases Plague Tularemia Viral Diseases Rabies Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS) West Nile Virus (WNV) Prion Diseases Bovine spongiform encephalopathy Scrapie Chronic Wasting Disease Species Profile: American Robin (Turdus migratorius Linnaeus) Chapter Activities Literature Cited Chapter Fourteen Distribution, Abundance, and Management Considerations of Resident Canada Geese and Urban White-Tailed Deer Key Concepts Introduction Factors That Contributed To Geese and Deer Abundance in Urban America Extent of the Problem: A National Assessment of Human-White-Tailed Deer and Canada Geese Conflicts Objectives and Questions Included in the National Assessment Results of the National Assessment Management Implications of the National Assessment Distribution of Resident Canada Geese and White-Tailed Deer in the Continental United States The Human Response to Resident Canada Geese and Urban White-Tailed Deer Ecological Impacts of Resident Canada Geese and Urban White-Tailed Deer Health and Safety Issues Related to Resident Canada Geese and Urban White-Tailed Deer White-Tailed Deer and Lyme Disease Feasible and Acceptable Management Strategies for Overabundant Resident Canada Geese Avoiding the Problem Getting at the Root Cause Attack the Symptoms Do Nothing Summary Case Study : A Tale of Two Cities The Two Cities The Citizen Survey Questionnaire Development The Response Educational Program Development Chapter Activity Literature Cited Index

This chapter explores the usefulness of behavioral ecology when sport hunting is either a component or the major objective of a wildlife management strategy. I examine the potential selective effects of different management practices, and argue that wildlife managers’ ignorance of those effects could have long-term negative ecological and economic consequences. Knowledge of the selective pressures caused by sport harvest could help define harvesting programs that avoid or reduce artificial changes in the genetic makeup of harvested populations. I will assume that the main goal of sport hunting is to provide recreational opportunities, not to maximize meat production or the number of animals killed. Within that framework, I suggest that minimizing the impact of sport hunting on the evolution of the hunted species should be a major preoccupation of wildlife managers. Until recently, most wildlife management was concerned with numbers of animals within a hunted population, and their relationships with their habitat. Hunting regulations and harvest quotas are typically based on population goals. Managers either seek to harvest enough animals to prevent some

The protectionist approach to wildlife conservation has been blamed by some conservationists for failing to protect wildlife and its habitats, especially in Africa. The failure of this approach has triggered a rush by conservationists to find alternatives. One alternative that has gained support is the Community-Based Wildlife Management (CWM) approach. Four assumptions underlie CWM: (1) that the national governments and their wildlife authorities are willing to devolve ownership of, and management responsibilities for, wildlife to rural communities; (2) that the communities are interested to participate in managing wildlife; (3) that the communities have the capability to manage wildlife; and (4) that wildlife conservation and rural economic development are compatible. The idea of CWM is put to the test by bringing together the existing views on the approach and assessing the plausibility of the four assumptions on the basis of the literature. Although the aim of CWM-to address the failures of fences-and-fines-is laudable, the four assumptions are problematic. The approach is, therefore, less effective than it is said to be.