Language Instruction

In the "Michigan Classics Edition of Content-Based Second Language Instruction," the authors provide updates on the field of CBI in second language acquisition since 1989.While the core of the book remains the same, new features discuss important CBI-related research and modifications to the pedagogy in the past many years."Content-Based Second Language Instruction, Michigan Classics Edition," now includes: a new preface a glossary of key terms an updated bibliography an epilogue highlighting the major developments in the field since 1989.

Does second language instruction promote second language acquisition? Some studies conclude that instruction does not help (or even that it is counter-productive); others find it beneficial. The picture becomes clearer if two distinctions are made. First, researchers may address one or both of two issues: the absolute effect of instruction, on the one hand, and its relative utility, on the other. Second, studies need to be subclassified according to whether or not the comparisons they make involve controlling for the total amount of instruction, exposure, or instruction plus exposure-that is, for the total opportunity to acquire the second language. Observing these distinctions, a review of research findings concludes that there is considerable (although not overwhelming) evidence that instruction is beneficial 1) for children as well as adults, 2) for beginning, intermediate, and advanced students, 3) on integrative as well as discrete-point tests, and 4) in acquisition-rich as well as acquisition-poor environments. These findings have implications for theories of second language acquisition, such as Krashen's Monitor Theory, which make predictions about second language acquisition with and without instruction, and also for those involved in educational administration, program design, and classroom teaching.

Acknowledgments. Preface. PRELIMINARY: BECOMING FAMILIAR WITH THE PROFESSION AND EXPECTATIONS FOR LANGUAGE TEACHERS. Architecture of the Profession. Expectations for Language. Teachers: A Continuum of Teacher Standards. Investigate and Reflect: Learning About Your Language-Specific National Organization and Your State Language Association Learning About Your Regional Language Conference Familiarizing Yourself With Foreign Language Resources Comparing Teacher Standards Across the Career Continuum. 1. UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF CONTEXTUALIZED INPUT, OUTPUT, AND INTERACTION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Conceptual Orientation. Observe and Reflect: Observing a Child Interacting in L1 Alternative Observation of a Child Interacting in L1 Observing a Beginning L2 Class. Discuss and Reflect: Creating Real Conversational Models Using Songs to Engage Learners. 2. CONTEXTUALIZING LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION TO ADDRESS GOALS OF THE STANDARDS FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. Conceptual Orientation. Teach and Reflect: A Roman Election Contextualizing the Teaching of a Past Tense Grammar Point Applying the Standards to the Post-Secondary Level. Discuss and Reflect: Textbook Evaluation: A Look at the Use of Context in Exercises Developing a Top-down ESL Lesson. 3. ORGANIZING CONTENT AND PLANNING FOR INTEGRATED LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION. Conceptual Orientation. Teach and Reflect: Planning for Instruction Writing Daily Lesson Objectives and a Daily Lesson Plan. Designing a Unit of Instruction: Developing a Content-Based Level Five Foreign Language Class. Discuss and Reflect: The Effect of Class Scheduling on Planning for Instruction Analyzing the Use of Content and Context in a Japanese Lesson. 4. CONNECTING LANGUAGE LEARNING TO THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM. Conceptual Orientation. Teach and Reflect: Designing a Content-Based Elementary School Lesson Developing a Storytelling Lesson. Discuss and Reflect: Teaching First Grade Content in French Implementing an Elementary School Language Program. 5. INTEGRATING LANGUAGE STUDY IN THE MIDDLE SCHOOL CURRICULUM. Conceptual Orientation. Teach and Reflect: Developing Culture-Specific Examples of the Three Ps Unit and Lesson Design Around a Story, Myth, or Folktale Analyzing Lesson Plans for Three Ps. Discuss and Reflect: Exploratory vs. Sequential Middle School Programs It's McLicious! Staying in the Target Language. 6. USING AN INTERACTIVE APPROACH TO DEVELOP INTERPRETIVE SKILLS. Conceptual Orientation. Teach and Reflect: Using the Interactive Model to Explore an Authentic Printed Text Using the Interactive Model to Explore an Authentic Taped Segment. Discuss and Reflect. Developing Interpretive Listening: Scripts or No Scripts? Reading Aloud. 7. USING A STORY-BASED APPROACH TO TEACH GRAMMAR. Conceptual Orientation. Teach and Reflect: Examining Grammar Presentations in Textbooks Designing a Story-Based Language Lesson Developing a PACE Lesson for the Post-Secondary Level. Discuss and Reflect: Using a Story-Based Approach to Teach Reflexive Verbs Contrasting Explanations of Form. 8. DEVELOPING ORAL AND WRITTEN INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION. Conceptual Orientation. Teach and Reflect: Creating Information-Gap Activities for Various Levels of Instruction Integrating Speaking with Oral or Printed Texts Integrating Advanced-Level Discourse at the Post-Secondary Level. Discuss and Reflect: Interpersonal Speaking? I Already Do That! Friday Is Culture Day. 9. DEVELOPING ORAL AND WRITTEN PRESENTATIONAL COMMUNICATION. Conceptual Orientation. Teach and Reflect: Designing a Presentational Process-oriented Writing Activity for Secondary Levels or Beyond Finding the Oral and Written Presentational Elements in Prepared Project Unit. Discuss and Reflect: A Play for My "Buddies" Integrating Peer Revision into the Presentational Writing Process. 10. ADDRESSING STUDENT DIVERSITY IN THE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM. Conceptual Orientation. Teach and Reflect: Designing a Lesson Appropriate for Diverse Learning Styles Working within Communities. Discuss and Reflect: Preparing to Teach Special Education Spanish I and II Classes Cultural Diversity in a Small Rural Community. 11. ASSESSING STANDARDS-BASED LANGUAGE PERFORMANCE IN CONTEXT. Conceptual Orientation. Teach and Reflect: Analyzing and Adapting a Traditional Test Adding An Authentic Dimension to a Performance-Based Assessment Task. Discuss and Reflect: Developing Authentic Assessment Tasks and Rubrics. 12. USING TECHNOLOGY TO CONTEXTUALIZE AND INTEGRATE LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION. Conceptual Orientation. Teach and Reflect. Discuss and Reflect.

IN THE PAST FEW DECADES, COMPUTER-ASSISTED LANGUAGE Instruction (CALI), or Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL), has been of interest because of its potential for providing individualized instruction. Interactivity between the computer and the learner is one of the important elements in CALI. Compared to a traditional textbook or workbook, a CALI program can provide immediate feedback on the correctness of the learner's response. One obstacle, however, has been the relatively primitive state of the existing CALI systems, many of which possess only limited capabilities for analyzing learners' responses, diagnosing their errors, and providing feedback. Garrett (p. 174) addresses the problem with existing CALI programs as follows: "Most students learn no more from grammar on the computer than they do from grammar in the workbooks, because much of the commercially available offerings are of the 'wrong, try again' model, which only indicates whether student-produced bits of language match the target language model stored in computer memory (sometimes also showing the correct answer) without indicating how or why the student input does not match." If the potential of computer-assisted language instruction as individualized supervised learning is to be realized, we must develop programs that support detailed error analysis and feedback targeted to specific deficiencies in the student’s performance.

This work is part of an effort aimed at developing computer-based systems for language instruction; we address the task of grading the pronunciation quality of the speech of a student of a foreign language. The automatic grading system uses SRI's Decipher/sup TM/ continuous speech recognition system to generate phonetic segmentations. Based on these segmentations and probabilistic models we produce pronunciation scores for individual or groups of sentences. Scores obtained from expert human listeners are used as the reference to evaluate the different machine scores and to provide targets when training some of the algorithms. In previous work we had found that duration-based scores outperformed HMM log-likelihood-based scores. In this paper we show that we can significantly improve HMM-based scores by using average phone segment posterior probabilities. Correlation between machine and human scores went up from r=0.50 with likelihood-based scores to r=0.88 with posterior-based scores. The new measures also outperformed duration-based scores in their ability to produce reliable scores from only a few sentences.

Most chapters conclude with "Summary," Activities and Questions to Think About," and "Suggestions for Further Reading." Preface. 1. Historical and International Perspectives. Societal Bilingualism. Education in More Than One Language: An International Perspective. The History of Dual Language Instruction in the United States. 2. Dual Language Program Models. What Is a Program Model? Transitional Bilingual Programs. Language Maintenance Programs. Enrichment Programs. Immersion Programs. Models and Realities: What Does Bilingual Education Look Like in Practice? Dual Language Instruction in Private Schools. Bilingual Teachers. The Role of Paraprofessionals. Bilingual Education and Multicultural Education. 3. Aspects of Language. The Study of Language. What Is Language? Subsystems of Language. Other Aspects of Communication. Language Attitudes. Language Varieties. More Than One Language. The Ebonics Debate. 4. Language Development. First Language Development: Memorizing or Hypothesizing? First Language Development and Comprehensible Input. Second Language Acquisition. Integrative Models of Second Language Speakers Interact. 5. Student Assessment. Testing Second Language Learners: General Issues. Language Proficiency. How is Language Proficiency Assessed? Standardized Achievement Testing. Diagnostic Testing for Placement in Special Programs. 6. Primary Language Instruction for Limited English Proficient Students. A Rationale for Primary Language Instruction. Overall, What Does the Research Indicate? If Primary Language Instruction, Then How? Cooperative Learning. 7. Second Language Instruction. Early Viewpoints on Second Language Instruction. Modern Approaches to Second Language Instruction. Integrating Language and Content: Specially Designed Academic Instruction. Literacy and Biliteracy. 8. Culture and Schooling. Culture and Population. What Is Culture? Culture and Language. How Is Culture Manifested? Culture and Academic Success. 9. Legal Foundations of Dual Language Instruction. The Historical Context for Dual Language Instruction: World War II and Beyond. Who Governs Education? The Bilingual Education Act (Title VII). Lau v. Nichols (1974). No Child Left Behind. Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974. State Laws Regarding Bilingual Education. 10. The Politics of Bilingualism. Language Policy and Planning. Language Resistance in the United States. National Unity and Diversity. Bibliography. Appendix: Technological Resources. Index.

In this chapter we will present an approach for rethinking English language instruction using an architectural metaphor. We will lay out a blueprint for infusing English language development (ELD) throughout the instructional program, and describe the design features and general instructional principles that underpin high-quality, rigorous second-language teaching. In other words, we will outline how to conceptualize an ELD program, how to design instruction, and how to teach English for academic purposes. We join Fillmore and Snow (2000) in their call for including linguistic knowledge in the wide range of competencies required of teachers. We further suggest that all teachers need not only linguistic knowledge, but also knowledge of how to design a comprehensive approach to ELD. We will present an approach for academic language instruction that helps resolve the acquisition versus direct teaching tension in the second-language literature and provides a workable model for incorporating language teaching throughout the instructional day. Given the increasingly multilingual populations in our schools, to effectively prepare students for success in academic subjects teachers need a focused approach to teaching language in every classroom, in every subject area, every day. It is clear that the need for second-language instruction is growing steadily. In 1980 over half the teachers in the United States either had English language learners or had taught them previously, whereas only one in seventeen had had any coursework in teaching English as a second language (Hamayan & Damico, 1990). The number of English language learners in the United States has increased dramatically in the past decade. The most recent

The connection between heritage language instruction and self-esteem was investigated. Participants were Inuit, White, and mixed-heritage (Inuit-White) children living in a subarctic community. Testing occurred before and after their 1st year in a heritage language or a 2nd language program. Children from all 3 groups who were educated in their heritage language showed a substantial increase in their personal self-esteem, whereas Inuit and mixed-heritage children educated in a 2nd language did not. Among the Inuit, Inuttitut instruction was associated with positive regard for the ingroup, whereas English or French instruction was associated with preference for the White outgroup. The present findings support claims that early heritage language education can have a positive effect on the personal and collective self-esteem of minority language students—a benefit not provided by 2nd language instruction. In the present study, we investigated the differential effects of early education in the heritage language versus early immersion in a second language on the child's personal and collective self-esteem. The question of language of instruction has been the center of considerable public and academic debate. Traditional thinking held that early entry into English language education would speed the minority language student's transition into the majority culture and improve his or her chances of competing in the mainstream society. In many cases, zealous supporters of this assimilationist perspective set out to replace the student's heritage languages with the dominant language. Some of the clearest and most dramatic examples of this can be found in North America's history of educating Native American and Cana

This article describes the adjunct model of language instruction, in which English/ESL courses are linked with content courses to integrate better the reading, writing, and study skills required for academic success in the university setting. Following a rationale for the adjunct model and a description of its key features as employed in the Freshman Summer Program (FSP) at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), the findings of two studies carried out at UCLA are presented: (a) former students' evaluation of the program and (b) follow-up interviews with selected ESL students and results of a simulated examination comparing the FSP follow-up students and non-FSP ESL students. The nation's colleges and universities are faced with the mounting challenge of educating a steady stream of underprepared students entering higher education. These incoming students, both from language majority and language minority backgrounds, enter the university lacking the essential skills required to succeed academically, such as the ability to synthesize lecture and text material and to express this information clearly in written assignments and on examinations. Language minority students, in addition to being deficient in academic skills, also may be less proficient in English, thus further limiting their potential for university success. In terms of university admissions, language minority students comprise an ever-increasing segment of the undergraduate population. In the state of California, for example, the number of Hispanic high-school graduates grew from 22,000 in the mid-1960s to 52,000 in the mid-1980s, and the number of Asian high-school

This study examined generation differences in achievement among 2,167 high school students who identified themselves as Mexican or Mexican American, reported whether they were born in the U.S. or outside of the U.S., and reported being in the general or academic track. Based on student self-reported grade point average (GPA), immigrant students in general-track courses and college preparatory courses reported higher grades than third-generation students. However, regardless of place of birth, general-track and college-track students who received some schooling in Mexico reported higher grades than students with no schooling in Mexico. Finally, regardless of immigrant status, college-track students who received some ESL/bilingual education reported higher grades than students who had not received any second language instruction. These findings support the paradoxical findings on generation differences that show that immigrants perform better academically than U.S.-born Mexican heritage students. However, our findings demonstrate that immigrant status alone does not lead to higher grades; rather, prior school history in Mexico, academic track, and bilingual/ESL assistance are all important in understanding the generation difference effect.